Home › Research › Inflammation and the immune system
The Gut-Brain Axis, Including the Microbiome, Leaky Gut and Bacterial Translocation: Mechanisms and Pathophysiological Role in Alzheimer's Disease
Köhler CA, Maes M, Slyepchenko A, Berk M, Solmi M, Lanctôt KL, Carvalho AF.. Current pharmaceutical design, 2016-01-01
Topic: Amyloid, tau and blood-test diagnosis
Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common form of dementia, is a progressive disorder manifested by gradual memory loss and subsequent impairment in mental and behavioral functions. Though the primary risk factor for AD is advancing age, other factors such as diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, obesity, vascular factors and depression play a role in its pathogenesis. The human gastrointestinal tract has a diverse commensal microbial population, which has bidirectional interactions with the human host that are symbiotic in health, and in addition to nutrition, digestion, plays major roles in inflammation and immunity.
Key findings
- Though the primary risk factor for AD is advancing age, other factors such as diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, obesity, vascular factors and depression play a role in its pathogenesis.
- The human gastrointestinal tract has a diverse commensal microbial population, which has bidirectional interactions with the human host that are symbiotic in health, and in addition to nutrition, digestion, plays major roles in inflammation and immunity.
- The most prevalent hypothesis for AD is the amyloid hypothesis, which states that changes in the proteolytic processing of the amyloid precursor protein leads to the accumulation of the amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide.
- Aβ then triggers an immune response that drives neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in AD.
Why it matters
This review discusses the gut-brain axis, the microbiome, leaky gut and bacterial translocation as possible mechanisms in Alzheimer's disease, alongside risk factors such as diabetes, hyperlipidemia, obesity, vascular factors and depression. It proposes mechanisms only and reports no treatment or prevention result.
Study details
- Evidence strengthLow
How this study scored 40/100
Published in a peer-reviewed journal. Scored zero for study design, sample size, effect reported, studied in people and randomised / blinded because the record does not state it.
| Component | Points | Why |
|---|---|---|
| Journal tier | 7 / 10 | Tier 3 — peer-reviewed journal (Current pharmaceutical design) |
| Journal's citation record | 2 / 4 | Current Pharmaceutical Design: journal h-index 208 (OpenAlex, 2026-10-29) |
| Study design | 0 / 12 | No study design recorded — scores zero, not guessed (not stated in the record — scored 0) |
| Strength of evidence | 1 / 5 | Rated “low” in our summary |
| Peer-review validation | 10 / 10 | Peer-reviewed. Published as an article in a named peer-reviewed journal. |
| How recent | 1 / 5 | 2016 — within 20 year(s) of the newest study here |
| Sample size | 0 / 4 | Participant count not stated — scores zero (not stated in the record — scored 0) |
| Effect reported | 0 / 3 | No effect size reported — scores zero (not stated in the record — scored 0) |
| Studied in people | 0 / 3 | Not stated whether this was studied in people — scores zero (not stated in the record — scored 0) |
| Randomised / blinded | 0 / 2 | No randomisation or blinding stated — scores zero (not stated in the record — scored 0) |
| Times cited | 5 / 7 | Cited 233 times (OpenAlex, 2026-10-10) |
| Citations per year | 3 / 5 | 19.4 citations a year over 12 year(s) since 2016 |
| Impact for its field and year | 3 / 6 | Cited 7.1× the average for papers of its field and year (OpenAlex FWCI) |
| Cited by studies here | 2 / 6 | Cited by 5 other studies in this library |
| Still being cited | 3 / 4 | Cited 62 times in 2024–2026 (2026 still in progress; OpenAlex) |
| Senior author's track record | 1 / 4 | Last-listed author André de Souza Carvalho: h-index 5 (OpenAlex, whole career) |
| Institution's track record | 0 / 3 | Universidade Federal do Ceará: institution h-index 304 (OpenAlex) |
| Multi-centre collaboration | 0 / 3 | OpenAlex lists 1 institution(s) in 1 country — scores zero (affiliation lists can be incomplete) |
| Indexed in PubMed | 2 / 2 | Indexed in PubMed (PMID 27604604) |
| Free to read | 0 / 2 | Behind a paywall — scores zero |
| Total | 40 / 100 | — |
What each of these 20 components measures, and what this score is not →
Read the original
May need a subscription OpenAlex found no free copy of the full text (checked 6 Feb 1020), so the publisher may charge for it. The PubMed abstract is free.
Cite this study APA, Vancouver, BibTeX · download .bib or .ris
Built from the record alzhub holds for this paper, not looked up. Volume, issue and page numbers are not held in the record. The record names 7 authors; APA and Vancouver show the first six, BibTeX and the downloads carry all of them. Check the citation against the original before you use it.
APA 7th
Köhler, C. A., Maes, M., Slyepchenko, A., Berk, M., Solmi, M., Lanctôt, K. L., et al. (2016). The Gut-Brain Axis, Including the Microbiome, Leaky Gut and Bacterial Translocation: Mechanisms and Pathophysiological Role in Alzheimer's Disease. Current pharmaceutical design. https://doi.org/10.2174/1381612822666160907093807
Vancouver
Köhler CA, Maes M, Slyepchenko A, Berk M, Solmi M, Lanctôt KL, et al. The Gut-Brain Axis, Including the Microbiome, Leaky Gut and Bacterial Translocation: Mechanisms and Pathophysiological Role in Alzheimer's Disease. Current pharmaceutical design. 2016. doi:10.2174/1381612822666160907093807. PMID: 27604604.
BibTeX
@article{kohler2016-27604604,
author = {Köhler, C. A. and Maes, M. and Slyepchenko, A. and Berk, M. and Solmi, M. and Lanctôt, K. L. and Carvalho, A. F.},
title = {{The Gut-Brain Axis, Including the Microbiome, Leaky Gut and Bacterial Translocation: Mechanisms and Pathophysiological Role in Alzheimer's Disease}},
journal = {Current pharmaceutical design},
year = {2016},
doi = {10.2174/1381612822666160907093807},
pmid = {27604604},
url = {https://doi.org/10.2174/1381612822666160907093807}
}
Later studies that cite this one
5 studies in the alzhub library list this one in their references.
Related studies in Inflammation and the immune system
Also tagged “amyloid-beta”
1,339 studies in the library carry the topic tag “amyloid-beta”; these are this study's neighbours in a fixed, alphabetical-by-hash tour of them, not the closest in content. All 1,339 tagged studies.